The banana plant, often erroneously referred to as a "tree", is a large herb, with succulent, very juicy stem (properly "pseudostem") which is a cylinder of leaf-petiole sheaths, reaching a height of 20 to 25 ft (6-7.5 m) and arising from a fleshy rhizome or corm. Suckers spring up around the main plant forming a clump or "stool'', the eldest sucker replacing the main plant when it fruits and dies, and this process of succession conti
nues indefinitely. Tender, smooth, oblong or elliptic, fleshy-stalked leaves, numbering 4 or 5 to 15, are arranged spirally. They unfurl, as the plant grows, at the rate of one per week in warm weather, and extend upward and outward, becoming as much as 9 ft (2.75 m) long and 2 ft (60 cm) wide. They may be entirely green, green with maroon splotches, or green on the upperside and red purple beneath. The inflorescence, a transformed growing point, is a terminal spike shooting out from the heart in the tip of the stem. At first, it is a large, long-oval, tapering, purple-clad bud. As it opens, it is seen that the slim, nectar-rich, tubular, toothed, white flowers are clustered in whorled double rows along the floral stalk, each cluster covered by a thick, waxy, hoodlike bract, purple outside, deep-red within. Normally, the bract will lift from the first hand in 3 to 10 days. If the plant is weak, opening may not occur until 10 or 15 days. Female flowers occupy the lower 5 to 15 rows; above them may be some rows of hermaphrodite or neuter flowers; male flowers are borne in the upper rows. In some types the inflorescence remains erect but generally, shortly after opening, it begins to bend downward. In about one day after the opening of the flower clusters, the male flowers and their bracts are shed, leaving most of the upper stalk naked except at the very tip where there usually remains an unopened bud containing the last-formed of the male flowers. However, there are some mutants such as 'Dwarf Cavendish' with persistent male flowers and bracts which wither and remain, filling the space between the fruits and the terminal bud.
nues indefinitely. Tender, smooth, oblong or elliptic, fleshy-stalked leaves, numbering 4 or 5 to 15, are arranged spirally. They unfurl, as the plant grows, at the rate of one per week in warm weather, and extend upward and outward, becoming as much as 9 ft (2.75 m) long and 2 ft (60 cm) wide. They may be entirely green, green with maroon splotches, or green on the upperside and red purple beneath. The inflorescence, a transformed growing point, is a terminal spike shooting out from the heart in the tip of the stem. At first, it is a large, long-oval, tapering, purple-clad bud. As it opens, it is seen that the slim, nectar-rich, tubular, toothed, white flowers are clustered in whorled double rows along the floral stalk, each cluster covered by a thick, waxy, hoodlike bract, purple outside, deep-red within. Normally, the bract will lift from the first hand in 3 to 10 days. If the plant is weak, opening may not occur until 10 or 15 days. Female flowers occupy the lower 5 to 15 rows; above them may be some rows of hermaphrodite or neuter flowers; male flowers are borne in the upper rows. In some types the inflorescence remains erect but generally, shortly after opening, it begins to bend downward. In about one day after the opening of the flower clusters, the male flowers and their bracts are shed, leaving most of the upper stalk naked except at the very tip where there usually remains an unopened bud containing the last-formed of the male flowers. However, there are some mutants such as 'Dwarf Cavendish' with persistent male flowers and bracts which wither and remain, filling the space between the fruits and the terminal bud.As the young fruits develop from the female flowers, they look like slender green fingers. The bracts are soon shed and the fully grown fruits in each cluster become a "hand" of bananas, and the stalk droops with the weight until the bunch is upside down. The number of "hands" varies with the species and variety.
The fruit (technically a "berry") turns from deep-green to yellow or red, or, in some forms, green-and white-striped, and may range from 2 1/2 to 12 in (6.4-30 cm) in length and 3/4 to 2 in (1.9-5 cm) in width, and from oblong, cylindrical and blunt to pronouncedly 3-angled, somewhat curved and hornlike. The flesh, ivory-white to yellow or salmon-yellow, may be firm, astringent, even gummy with latex, when unripe, turning tender and slippery, or soft and mellow or rather dry and mealy or starchy when ripe. The flavor may be mild and sweet or subacid with a distinct apple tone. Wild types may be nearly filled with black, hard, rounded or angled seeds 1/8 to 5/8 in (3-16 mm) wide and have scant flesh. The common cultivated types are generally seedless with just minute vestiges of ovules visible as brown specks in the slightly hollow or faintly pithy center, especially when the fruit is overripe. Occasionally, cross-pollination by wild types will result in a number of seeds in a normally seedless variety such as 'Gros Michel', but never in the Cavendish type.
Origin and Distribution
Edible bananas originated in the Indo-Malaysian region reaching to northern Australia. They were known only by hearsay in the Mediterranean region in the 3rd Century B.C., and are believed to have been first carried to Europe in the 10th Century A.D. Early in the 16th Century, Portuguese mariners transported the plant from the West African coast to South America. The types found in cultivation in the Pacific have been traced to eastern Indonesia from where they spread to the Marquesas and by stages to Hawaii.
Bananas and plantains are today grown in every humid tropical region and constitute the 4th largest fruit crop of the world, following the grape, citrus fruits and the apple. World production is estimated to be 28 million tons—65% from Latin America, 27 % from Southeast Asia, and 7 % from Africa. One-fifth of the crop is exported to Europe, Canada, the United States and Japan as fresh fruit. India is the leading banana producer in Asia. The crop from 400,000 acres (161,878 ha) is entirely for domestic consumption. Indonesia produces over 2 million tons annually, the Philippines about 1/2 million tons, exporting mostly to Japan. Taiwan raises over 1/2 million tons for export. Tropical Africa (principally the Ivory Coast and Somalia) grows nearly 9 million tons of bananas each year and exports large quantities to Europe.
Brazil is the leading banana grower in South America—about 3 million tons per year, mostly locally consumed, while Colombia and Ecuador are the leading exporters. Venezuela's crop in 1980 reached 983,000 tons. Large scale commercial production for export to North America is concentrated in Honduras (where banana fields may cover 60 sq mi) and Panama, and, to a lesser extent, Costa Rica. In the West Indies, the Windward Islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe are the main growers and for many years have regularly exported to Europe. Green bananas are the basic food of the people of Western Samoa and large quantities are exported.
In Ghana, the plantain is a staple food but up to the late 1960's the crop was grown only in home gardens or as a shade for cacao. When the cacao trees declined, solid plantings of plantain were established in their place and in newly cleared forest land where the richness of organic matter greatly promotes growth. By 1977, Ghana was harvesting 2,204,000 tons (2,000,000 MT) annually.
The plantain is the most important starchy food of Puerto Rico and is third in monetary value among agricultural crops, being valued at $30,000,000 annually. While improved methods of culture have been adopted in recent years and production has been increased by 15% in 1980, it was still necessary to import 1,328 tons (1,207 MT) to meet local demand. Annual per capita consumption is said to be 65 lbs (29.5 kg). In the past, most of the plantains in Puerto Rico were grown on humid mountainsides. High prices have induced some farmers to develop plantations on level irrigated land formerly devoted to sugarcane.
In tropical zones of Colombia, plantains are not only an important part of the human diet but the fruits and the plants furnish indispensable feed for domestic animals as well. The total plantain area is about 1,037,820 acres (420,000 ha) with a yield of 5,500 lbs per acre (5,500) kg/ha). Mexico grows about 1/6 as much, 35% under irrigation, and the crop is valued at $1,335 US per acre ($3,300 US/ha). Venezuela has somewhat less of a crop 517,000 tons from 146,000 acres (59,000 ha) in 1980—and the Dominican Republic is fourth in order with about 114,600 acres (46,200 ha). Bananas and plantains are casually grown in some home gardens in southern Florida. There are a few small commercial plantations furnishing local markets.
Climate
The edible bananas are restricted to tropical or neartropical regions, roughly the area between latitudes 30°N and 30°S. Within this band, there are varied climates with different lengths of dry season and different degrees and patterns of precipitation. A suitable banana climate is a mean temperature of 80°F (26.67°C) and mean rainfall of 4 in (10 cm) per month. There should not be more than 3 months of dry season.
Cool weather and prolonged drought retard growth. Banana plants produce only one leaf per month in winter, 4 per month in summer. If low temperatures occur just at flowering time, the bud may not be able to emerge from the stem. If fruits have already formed, maturity may be delayed several months or completely suspended. If only the leaves are destroyed, the fruits will be exposed to sunburn. Smudging, by burning dry trash covered with green clippings to create smoke, can raise the temperature 2 to 4 degrees. Flooding the field in advance of a cold snap will keep the ground warm if the chill weather is brief. In Australia, bananas are planted on sunny hill sides at elevations of 200 to 1,000 ft (60 to 300 m) to avoid the cold air that settles at lower levels. Brief frosts kill the plants to the ground but do not destroy the corm. 'Dwarf Cavendish' and the 'Red' banana are particularly sensitive to cold, whereas the dwarf cultivar 'Walha', or 'Kullen', of India is successful up to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) in the outer range of the Western Ghats. 'Vella vazhai' is extensively cultivated in the Lower Pulneys between 3,200 and 5,500 ft (975 and 1,616 m). A cooking banana, 'Plankel', survives winters in home gardens in northern India. In South Africa, the main banana-producing area is along the southeast coast at 3,000 ft (915 m) above sea level with summer rainfall of 35 to 45 in (90-115 cm). The major part of the crop in East Africa is grown between 4,000 and 5,000 ft (1,220 and 1,524 m) and the total range extends from sea-level to 7,500 ft (2,286 m).
Wind is detrimental to banana plants. Light winds shred the leaves, interfering with metabolism; stronger winds may twist and distort the crown. Winds to 30 mph break the petioles; winds to 40 mph will topple a pseudostem that is supporting the weight of a heavy bunch unless the stem is propped, and may cause root damage in non fruiting plants that are not blown down; winds of 60 mph or over will uproot entire plantations, especially when the soil is saturated by rain. Windbreaks are often planted around banana fields to provide some protection from cold and wind. Cyclones and hurricanes are devastating and the latter were the main reason for the shift of large scale banana production from the West Indies to Central America, Colombia and Ecuador. Hail results from powerful convection currents in the tropics, especially in the spring, and does much damage to bananas.
Soil
The banana plant will grow and fruit under very poor conditions but will not flourish and be economically productive without deep, well-drained soil—loam, rocky sand, marl, red laterite, volcanic ash, sandy clay, even heavy clay—but not fine sand which holds water. Over head irrigation is said to improve the filth of heavy clay and has made possible the use of clay soils that would never have been considered for banana culture in the past. Alluvial soils of river valleys are ideal for banana growing. Bananas prefer an acid soil but if the pH is below 5.0 lime should be applied the second year. Low pH makes bananas more susceptible to Panama disease. Where waterlogging is likely, bananas and plantains are grown on raised beds. Low, perennially wet soils require draining and dry soils require irrigation.
Propagation
Banana seeds are employed for propagation only in breeding programs. Corms are customarily used for planting and Mexican studies with 'Giant Cavendish' have shown that those over 17.5 lbs (8 kg) in weight come into bearing early and, in the first year, the bunches are longer, heavier, with more hands than those produced from smaller corms. From the second year on, the advantage disappears. Most growers prefer "bits" 2- to 4-lb (0.9-1.8 kg) sections of the corm. When corms are scarce, smaller sections—1 to 2 lbs (454-908 g) have been utilized and early fertilization applied to compensate for the smaller size. But in Queensland it is specified that "bits" of 'Dwarf Cavendish' shall not be less than 4 x 3 x 3 in (10 x 7.5 x 7.5 cm) and "bits" of 'Lady Finger' and other tall cultivars shall be not less than 5 x 5 x 3 1/2 in ( 12.5 x 12.5 x 9 cm). The corm has a number of buds, or "eyes", which develop into new shoots. The two upper buds are the youngest and have a pinkish tint. These develop rapidly and become vigorous plants. To obtain the "bits", a selected, healthy banana plant, at least 7 months old but prior to fruiting, is uprooted and cut off about 4 to 5 in (10-12.5 cm) above the corm. The outer layer of leaf bases is peeled off to expose the buds, leaving just a little to protect the buds during handling and transport. The corm is split between the 2 upper buds and trimmed with square sides, removing the lower, inferior buds and any parts affected by pests or disease, usually indicated by discoloration. Then the "bits" are fumigated by immersing for 20 minutes in hot water at about 130°F (54.44°C) or in a commercial nematicide solution. Sometimes it is advisable to apply a fungicide to prevent spoilage. They should then be placed in a sanitary place (away from all diseased trash) in the shade for 48 hrs before planting.
Inasmuch as "bits" are not often available in quantity, the second choice is transplantation of suckers. These should not be too young nor too old.
The sucker first emerges as a conical shoot which opens and releases leaves that are mostly midribs with only vestiges of blade. These juvenile leaves are called "sword", "spear", or "arrow", leaves. Just before the sucker produces wide leaves resembling those of the mature plant but smaller, it has sufficient corm development to be transplanted. Sometimes suckers from old, deteriorating corms have broad leaves from the outset. These are called "water" suckers, are insubstantial, with very little vigor, and are not desirable propagating material. "Maiden" suckers that have passed the "sword"-leaved stage and have developed broad leaves must be large to be acceptably productive. In banana trials at West Bengal, India, suckers 3 to 4 months old with well-developed rhizomes proved to be the best yielders. In comparison, small, medium, or large "sword" suckers develop thicker stems, and give much higher yields of marketable fruits per land parcel. "Bits' grow slowly at first, but in 2 years' time they catch up to plants grown from suckers or "butts" and are much more economical. "Butts" (entire corms, or rhizomes, of mature plants), called "bull heads" in the Windward Islands, are best used to fill in vacancies in a plantation. For quick production, some farmers will use "butts" with several "sword" suckers attached. Very young suckers, called "peepers", are utilized only for establishing nurseries.
Instead of waiting for normal sucker development, multiplication has been artificially stimulated in the field by removing the soil and outer leaf sheaths covering the upper buds of the corm, packing soil around them and harvesting them when they have reached the "sword' sucker stage. A greenhouse technique involves cleaning and injuring a corm to induce callus formation from which many new plants will develop. As many as 180 plantlets have been derived from one corm in this manner.
Diseases are often spread by vegetative propagation of bananas, and this fact has stimulated efforts to create disease-free planting material on a large scale by means of tissue culture. Some commercial banana cultivars have been cultured in Hawaii. A million 'Giant Cavendish' banana plants were produced by meristem culture in Taiwan in 1983. In the field, these laboratory plantlets showed 95% survival, grew faster than suckers in the first 5 months, had bigger stems and more healthy leaves.
Harvesting
Banana bunches are harvested with a curved knife when the fruits are fully developed, that is, 75% mature, the angles are becoming less prominent and the fruits on the upper hands are changing to light green; and the flower remnants (styles) are easily rubbed off the tips. Generally, this stage is reached 75 to 80 days after the opening of the first hand. Cutters must leave attached to the bunch about 6 to 9 in (15-18 cm) of stalk to serve as a handle for carrying. With tall cultivars, the pseudostem must be slashed partway through to cause it to bend and harvesters pull on the leaves to bring the bunch within reach. They must work in pairs to hold and remove the bunch without damaging it. In the early 1960's a "banana bender" was invented in Queensland—an 8-ft pole with a steel rod mounted at the top and shaped with a downward pointing upper hook and an upward-pointing lower hook, the first to pull the pseudostem down after nicking and the second to support the bent pseudostem so that the bunch can be cut at a height of about 4 1/2 ft ( 1.35 m).
Formerly, entire bunches were transported to shipping points and exported with considerable loss from inevitable damage. Improved handling methods have greatly reduced bunch injuries. In modern plantations, the bunches are first rested on the padded shoulder of a harvester and then are hung on special racks or on cables operated by pulleys by means of which they can be easily conveyed to roads and by vehicle to nearby packing sheds. Where fields have been located in remote areas lacking adequate highways, transport out has been accomplished by hovercraft flying along riverbeds. In Costa Rica, when rains have prevented truck transport to railway terminals, bananas have been successfully carried in slings suspended from helicopters. Exposure to even moderate light after harvest initiates the ripening process. Therefore the fruits should be protected from light as much as possible until they reach the packing shed.
In India, studies have been made to determine the most feasible disposition of a plant from which a bunch has been harvested. It is normal for it to die and it may be left standing for 3 to 4 months to dehydrate before removal, or the top half may be removed right after harest by means of a tool called a "mattock" (a combined axe and hoe); or the pseudostem may be cut at ground level, split open, and the tender core taken away for culinary purposes. Results indicated that the first two practices have equal effect on production, but the complete felling and removal of the pseudostem lowered the yield of the "follower" significantly. In Jamaica and elsewhere it is considered best to chop and spread as organic matter the felled pseudostem and other plant residue. This returns to the soil 404 lbs N, 101 lbs P and 1, 513 lbs K from an acre of bananas (404 kg, 101 kg and 1,513 kg, respectively, from a hectare). The stump should be covered with hard-packed soil to discourage entrance of pests.
Diseases
The subject of diseases is authoritatively presented by C.W. Wardlaw in the second edition of his textbook, Banana Diseases, including plantains and abaca, 1972; 878 pages.
It is appropriate here only to mention the main details of those maladies which are of the greatest concern to banana and plantain growers. Sigatoka, or leaf spot, caused by the fungus Mycosphaerella musicola (of which the conidial stage is Cercospora musae) was first reported in Java in 1902, next in Fiji in 1913 where it was named after the Sigatoka Valley. It appeared in Queensland 10 years later, and in another 10 years made its appearance in the West Indies and soon spread throughout tropical America. The disease was noticed in East and West Tropical Africa in 1939 and 1940. It was discovered in Ghana in 1954 and ravaged a state farm in 1965. It is most prevalent on shallow, poorly drained soil and in areas where there is heavy dew. The first signs on the leaves are small, pale spots which enlarge to 1/2 in (1.25 cm), become dark purplish black and have gray centers. When the entire plant is affected, it appears as though burned, the bunches will be of poor quality and will not mature uniformly. The fruits will be acid, the plant roots small. Control is achieved by spraying with orchard mineral oil, usuall every 3 weeks, a total of 12 applications of 1 1/2 gals per acre (14.84 liters/ha); or by systemic fungicides applied to the soil or by aerial spraying.
A much more virulent malady, Black Sigatoka, or Black Leaf Streak, caused by Mycosphaerella fifiensis var. difformis, attacked bananas in Honduras in 1969 and spread to banana plantations in Guatemala and Belize. It appeared in plantations in Honduras in 1972 where there had not been any need to spray against ordinary Sigatoka. It made headway rapidly through plantain fields in Central America to Mexico and about 10 years later was found in the Uruba region of Colombia. The disease struck Fiji in 1963 and became an epidemic. It began spreading in 1973, largely replacing ordinar Sigatoka. Surveys have revealed this previously unrecognized disease on several other South Pacific islands, in Hawaii, the Philippines, Malaysia and Taiwan. It is spread mostly by wind; kills the leaves and exposes the bunches to the sun. Cultivars which are resistant to Sigatoka have shown no resistance to Black Sigatoka. There are vigorous efforts to control the disease by fungicides or intense oil spraying. But it is not completely controlled even by spraying every 10 to 12 days a total of 40 sprayings. The cost of control with fungicides is 3 to 4 times that of controlling ordinary Sigatoka because of the need for more frequent aerial sprayings. It is very difficult to treat properly on islands where bananas are grown mostly in scattered plantings. In Mexico where plantains are extremely important in the diet, and 65% of the production is on non-irrigated land, control efforts have elevated costs of plantain production by 145 to 168%. In the Sula Valley of Honduras, Black Sigatoka has caused annual losses of 3,000,000 boxes of bananas. The great need is for resistant cultivars of high quality.
Panama Disease or Banana Wilt, which arises from infection by the fungus, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense originates in the soil, travels to the secondary roots, enters the corm only through fresh injuries, passes into the pseudostem; then, beginning with the oldest leaves, turns them yellow first at the base, secondly along the margins, and lastly in the center. The interior leaves turn bronze and droop. The pseudostem turns brown inside. This plague has seriously affected banana production in Central America, Colombia and the Canary Islands. It started spreading in southern Taiwan in 1967 and has become the leading local banana disease. The 'Cavendish' types have been considered highly resistant but they succumb if planted on land previously occupied by 'Gros Michel'. The disease is transmitted by soil, moving agricultural vehicles or other machinery, flowing water, or by wind. It is combatted by flooding the field for 6 months. Or, if it is not too serious, by planting a cover crop. There are reportedly two races: Race #1 affects 'Gros Michel', 'Manzano', 'Sugar' and 'Lady Finger'; Race #2 attacks 'Bluggoe'. Resistant cultivars are the Jamaican 'Lacatan', 'Monte Cristo', and 'Datil'or'Nino'. Resistant plantains are 'Maricongo', 'Enano' end 'Pelipita'.
Moko Disease, or Moko de Guineo, or Marchites bacteriana, is caused by the bacterium, Pseudomonas solanacearum, resulting in internal decay. It has become one of the chief diseases of banana and plantain in the western hemisphere and has seriously reduced production in the leading areas of Colombia. It attacks Heliconia species as well. It is transmitted by insects, machetes and other tools, plant residues, soil, and root contact with the roots of sick plants. There are said to be 4 different types transmitted by different means. Efforts at control include covering the male bud with plastic to prevent insects from visiting its mucilaginous excretion; debudding, disinfecting of cutting tools with formaldehyde in water 1: 3; disinfection of planting material; disposal of infected fruits and plant parts; injection of herbicide into infected plants to hasten dehydration, and also seemingly healthy neighboring plants. If the organism is variant SFR, all adjacent plants within a radius of 16.5 ft (5 m) must be destroyed and the area not replanted for 10 to 12 months, for this variant persists in the soil that long. If it is variant B, the plants within 32.8 ft (10 m) must be injected and the area not replanted for 18 months. In either case, the soil must be kept clear of broad leaved weeds that may serve as hosts. In Colombia, there are 12 species of weeds that serve as hosts or "carriers" but only 4 of these are themselves susceptible to the disease. Crop rotation is sometimes resorted to. The only sure defense is to plant resistant cultivars, such as the 'Pelipita' plantain.
Black-end arises from infection by the fungus Gloeosporium musarum, of which Glomerella cingulata is the perfect form. It causes anthracnose on the plant and attacks the stalk and stalk-end of the fruits forming dark, sunken lesions on the peel, soon penetrating the flesh and developing dark, watery, soft areas. In severe cases, the entire skin turns black and the flesh rots. Very young fruits shrivel and mummify. This fungus is often responsible for the rotting of bananas in storage. Immersing the green fruits in hot water, 131°F (55°C) for 2 minutes before ripening greatly reduces spoilage.
Cigar-tip rot, or Cigar-end disease, Stachylidium ( Verticillium) theobromae begins in the flowers and extends to the tips of the fruits and turns them dark, the peel darkens, the flesh becomes fibrous. One remedy is to cut off withered flowers as soon as the fruits are formed and apply copper fungicides to the cut surfaces.
In Surinam, cucumber mosaic virus attacks plantains especially when cocumber is interplanted in the fields. Also, Chinese cabbage, Cayenne pepper and "bitter greens" (Cestrum latifolium Lam.) are hosts for the disease.
Cordana leaf spot (Cordana musae), causes oval lesions 3 in (7.5 cm) or more in length, brown with a bright-yellow border. There is progressive dying of the leaves beginning with the oldest, as in Sigatoka, with consequent undersized fruits ripening prematurely. It formerly occurred mainly in sheltered, humid regions of Queensland. Now it is seen mostly as an invader of areas affected by Sigatoka, in various geographical locations.
Bunchy top, an aphid-transmitted virus disease of banana, was unknown in Queensland until about 1913 when it was accidentally introduced in suckers brought in from abroad. In the next 10 years it spread swiftly and threatened to wipe out the banana industry. Drastic measures were taken to destroy affected plants and to protect uninvaded plantations. The disease was found in Western Samoa in 1955 and it eliminated the susceptible 'Dwarf Cavendisht' from commercial plantings. A vigorous eradication and quarantine program was undertaken in 1956 and carried on to 1960. Thereafter, strict inspection and control measures continued. Other crops were provided to farmers in heavily infested areas. Leaves formed after infection are narrow, short, with upturned margins and become stiff and brittle; the leafstalks are short and unbending and remain erect, giving a "rosetted" appearance. The leaves of suckers and the 3 youngest leaves of the mother plant show yellowing and waviness of margins, and the youngest leaves will have very narrow, dark-green, usually interrupted ("dot-and dash") lines on the underside.
Because of the seriousness of Panama disease and Bunchy Top in southern Queensland, the prospective banana planter must obtain a permit from the Queensland Department of Primary Industries. In the Southern Quarantine Area, any plant showing Bunchy Top, as well as its suckers and all plants within a 15 ft (4.6 m) radius must be killed by injecting herbicide or must be dug out completely and cut into pieces no bigger than 2 in (5 cm) wide. In restricted areas, only the immune 'Lady Finger' may be grown. In the Northern Quarantine Area, no plants may be brought in from another area and all plants within a radius of 120 ft (36.5 m) from a diseased plant must be eradicated.
Swelling and splitting of the corm and the base of the pseudostem is caused by saline irrigation water and by overfertilization during periods of drought which builds up soluble salts in the soil.
Food Uses
The ripe banana is utilized in a multitude of ways in the human diet—from simply being peeled and eaten out of-hand to being sliced and served in fruit cups and salads, sandwiches, custards and gelatins; being mashed and incorporated into ice cream, bread, muffins, and cream pies. Ripe bananas are often sliced lengthwise, baked or broiled, and served (perhaps with a garnish of brown sugar or chopped peanuts) as an accompaniment for ham or other meats. Ripe bananas may be thinly sliced and cooked with lemon juice and sugar to make jam or sauce, stirring frequently during 20 or 30 minutes until the mixture jells. Whole, peeled bananas can be spiced by adding them to a mixture of vinegar, sugar, cloves and cinnamon which has boiled long enough to become thick, and then letting them cook for 2 minutes.
In the islands of the South Pacific, unpeeled or peeled, unripe bananas are baked whole on hot stones, or the peeled fruit may be grated or sliced, wrapped, with or without the addition of coconut cream, in banana leaves, and baked in ovens. Ripe bananas are mashed, mixed with coconut cream, scented with Citrus leaves, and served as a thick, fragrant beverage.
Banana puree is important as infant food and can be successfully canned by the addition of ascorbic acid to prevent discoloration. The puree is produced on a commercial scale in factories close to banana fields and packed in plastic-lined #10 cans and 55-gallon metal drums for use in baby foods, cake, pie, ice cream, cheesecake, doughnuts, milk shakes and many other products. It is also used for canning half-and-half with applesauce, and is combined with peanut butter as a spread. Banana nectar is prepared from banana puree in which a cellulose gum stabilizer is added. It is homogenized, pasteurized and canned, with or without enrichment with ascorbic acid.
Sliced ripe bananas, canned in sirup, were introduced to the food trade for commercial use in frozen tarts, pies, gelatins and other products. In 1966, the United Fruit Company built a processing plant at La Lima, Honduras, for producing canned and frozen banana puree and canned banana slices. Because of seasonal gluts and perishability and the tonnages of bananas and plantains that are not suitable for marketing or export because of overripeness or stained peel or other defects, there is tremendous interest in the development of modes of processing and preserving these fruits.
In Polynesia, there is a traditional method of preserving large quantities of bananas for years as emergency fare in case of famine. A pit is dug in the ground and lined with banana and Heliconza leaves. The peeled bananas are wrapped in Heliconza leaves, arranged in layer after layer, then banana leaves are placed on top and soil and rocks heaped over all. The pits remain unopened until the fermented food, called "masi", is needed.
In Costa Rica, ripe bananas from an entire bunch are peeled and boiled slowly for hours to make a thick sirup which is called "honey".
Green bananas, boiled in the skin, are very popular in Cuba, Puerto Rico and other Caribbean islands. In Puerto Rico, the cooked bananas are recooked briefly in a marinating sauce containing black pepper, vinegar, garlic, onions, bay leaves, olive oil and salt and left standing at room temperature for 24 hours before being eaten. Peeled, sliced green bananas are quick-frozen in Puerto Rico for later cooking. If steam treated to facilitate peeling, the enzymes are inactivated only on the surface of the flesh and the interior, when exposed, will turn brown unless sulfited. It is more satisfactory to immerse the whole bananas in water at 200°F (93°C) for 30 minutes which wholly inactivates the enzymes. No sulfite is then needed and no browning occurs.
Much research has been conducted by food technologists at the University of Puerto Rico to determine the best procedures for canning sliced green bananas and plantains to make them readily available for cooking. Enzyme inactivation is necessary and the hot water treatment facilitates the peeling. If peeled raw, green bananas and plantains exude gummy white latex which stains materials. When canning, citric acid in a 2% brine is added, but this method of preservation has not yet met with success because of rapid detinning of the inside of the cans. The problem is not solved by using enamellined cans because the fruit darkens quickly after the cans are opened. Glass jars may prove to be the only suitable containers.
Through experimental work with a view to freezing peeled, blanched, sliced green bananas, it has been found that, with a pulp-to-peel ratio of less than 1:3 the fruits turn gray on exposure to air after processing and this discoloration is believed to be caused by the high iron content (4.28 p/m) of the surface layer of the flesh and its reaction to the tannin normally present in green bananas and plantains. At pulp to peel ratio of 1:0, the tannin level in green bananas is 241.4 mg; at l:3, 151.0 mg, and at 1:5, 112.6 mg, per 100 g. Therefore, it is recommended that for freezing green bananas be harvested at a stage of maturity evidenced by 1:5 pulp-to-peel ratio. Such fruits have a slightly yellowish flesh, higher carotene content, and are free of off-flavors. The slices are cooked by the consumer without thawing.
Completely green plantains are 50% flesh and 50% peel. Plantains for freezing should have a pulp content of at least 60% for maximum quality in the ultimate food product, but a range of 55 to 65% is considered commercially acceptable.
Ripe plantains, held until the skin has turned mostly or wholly black, are commonly peeled, sliced diagonally and fried in olive oil, accompany the main meal daily in the majority of homes in tropical Latin America. In the Dominican Republic, a main dish is made of boiled, mashed ripe plantains mixed with beaten eggs, flour, butter, milk and cloves, and layered in a casserole with ground beef fried with Picalilli and raisins, lastly topped with grated cheese and baked until golden brown. In Guatemala, boiled plantains are usually served with honey.
Green plantains are popular sliced crosswise, fried until partially cooked, pressed into a thickness of 1/2 in (1.25 cm), and fried in deep fat till crisp. The product is called 'tostones" and somewhat resembles French-fried potatoes. Puerto Rican "mofongo" is a ball of fried green plantain mashed with fried pork rind, seasoned with thickened stock, garlic and other condiments. It must be eaten hot before it hardens. "Mofongo" has been successfully frozen in boilable pouches. Slices of nearly ripe plantain (5% starch content) are cooked in sirup and frozen in boilable pouches. Puerto Rican plantains, shipped green to Florida, have been ripened, peeled, quartered, infused with orange juice, frozen and provided to schools for serving as luncheon dessert.
In Ghana, plantains are consumed at 5 different stages of ripeness. Fully ripe plantains are often deep fried or cooked in various dishes. A Ghanian pancake called "fatale" is made of nearly full ripe plantains and fermented whole meal dough of maize, seasoned with onions, ginger, pepper and salt, and fried in palm oil. "Kaklo" is the same mix but thicker and rolled into balls which are deep-fried. Because home preparation is laborious, a commercial dehydrated mix has been developed. In Ghana, green plantains are boiled and eaten in stew or mashed, together with boiled cassava, into a popular plastic product called "fufu" which is eaten with soup. Because of the great surplus of plantains in summer, technologists have developed methods for drying and storing of strips and cubes of plantain for house use in making "fufu" out of season. The cubes can also be ground into plantain flour. Use of infrared, microwave, and extrusion systems has resulted in high-quality finished products. Processing has the added advantage of keeping the peels at factories where they may be converted into useful by-products instead of their adding to the bulk of household garbage.
Banana or plantain flour, or powder, is made domestically by sun-drying slices of unripe fruits and pulverizing. Commercially, it is produced by spray-drying, or drum-drying, the mashed fruits. The flour can be mixed 50-50 with wheat flour for making cupcakes. Two popular Puerto Rican foods are "pasteles" and "alcapurias"; both are pastry stuffed with meat; the first is wrapped in plantain leaves and boiled; the latter is fried. The pastry is made of plantain flour or a mixture of plantain with cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz. ) or cocoyam (tanier), Xanthosoma spp. The plantain cultivars 'Saba', 'Tundoc' and 'Latundan' are very suitable for making flour.
Commercial production and marketing of fried green plantain and banana chips has been increasing in various parts of the world over the past 25 years and these products are commonly found in retail groceries alongside potato chips and other snack foods. 'Carinosa' and 'Bungulan' bananas are favored for chip-making. In Puerto Rico, the plantain cultivars 'Guayamero Alto' and 'Congo Enano' are chosen for this purpose.
Dried bananas, or so-called "banana figs" are peeled firm-ripe bananas split lengthwise, sulphured, and ovendried to a moisture content of 18 to 20%. Wrapped individually in plastic and then packed by the dozen in polyethylene bags, and encased in cartons, they can be stored for a year at room temperature—75.2° to 86°F (24°-30°C) and they are commonly exported. The product can be eaten as a snack or minced and used together with candied lemon peel in fruit cake and other bakery products. In India the 'Dwarf Cavendish' is preferred for drying; in the Philippines, the true 'Lacatan' or the 'Higo'.
Canadian researchers have developed a system of osmotic dehydration for sliced firm ripe bananas and plantains, especially designed for developing countries with plentiful sugar for the solutions required.
Since the early 1960's, Brazil has produced dehydrated banana flakes for local markets and export to the USA and elsewhere in vacuum sealed cans. The flakes are used on cereal, in baked goods, canapes, meat loaf and curries, desserts, sauces, and other products. In Israel, banana flakes have been made by steam blanching 'Dwarf Cavendish' bananas and drum drying to 2.6% moisture. The flakes, packed in vacuum sealed cans, keep for a year at 75.2° to 86°F (24° 30°C). At temperatures to 95°F (35°C), the flakes darken somewhat and tend to stick together. Israel has also introduced a formula for high-protein flakes made of 70% banana and 30% soybean protein and this development has been adopted in Brazil. The flakes are used by Brazilian food manufacturers in ice cream, and as fillings for cakes and other bakery products. South Africa has produced flakes of 2/3 banana and 1/3 maize meal.
In Africa, ripe bananas are made into beer and wine. The Tropical Products Institute in London has established a simple procedure for preparing an acceptable vinegar from fermented banana rejects.
The terminal male bud of the wild banana, M. balbisiana, is marketed in Southeast Asia. It is often boiled whole after soaking an hour in salt water, or with several changes of water to reduce astringency, and eaten as a vegetable. The male bud of cultivated bananas is considered too astringent but it is, nevertheless, sometimes similarly consumed. The flowers may be removed from the bud and prepared separately. They are used in curries in Malaya and eaten with palm oil in West Tropical Africa.
The new shoots of young plants may be cooked as greens. Banana pseudostem core constitutes about 10 to 15% of the whole and contains 1% starch, 0.68% crude fiber and 1% total ash. It is often cooked and eaten as a vegetable in India and is canned with potatoes and tomatoes in a curry sauce. Circular slices about 1/2 in (1.25 cm) thick are treated with citric acid and potassium metabisulphite and candied.
In India, a solution of the ash from burned leaves and pseudostems is used as salt in seasoning vegetable curries. The ash contains roughly (per 100 g): potassium, 255 mg; magnesium, 27 mg; phosphorus, 33 mg; calcium, 6.6 mg; sodium, 51 mg.
Dried green plantains, ground fine and roasted, have been used as a substitute for coffee.
