Photosynthesis

I. Capturing the Energy of Life

1. All organisms require energy
2. Some organisms (autotrophs) obtain energy directly from the sun and store it in organic compounds (glucose) during a process called photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6

II. Energy for Life Processes

1. Energy is the ability to do work
2. Work for a cell includes growth & repair, active transport across cell membranes, reproduction, synthesis of cellular products, etc.
3. Work is the ability to change or move matter against other forces (W = F x D)
4. Autotrophs or producers convert sunlight, CO2, and H2O into glucose (their food)
5. Plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria, some prokaryotes, are producers or autotrophs
6. Only 10% of the Earth’s 40 million species are autotrophs
7. Other autotrophs use inorganic compounds instead of sunlight to make food; process known as chemosynthesis
8. Producers make food for themselves and heterotrophs or consumers that cannot make food for themselves
9. Heterotrophs include animals, fungi, & some bacteria, & protists
III. Biochemical Pathways

1. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are biochemical pathways
2. Biochemical pathways are a series of reactions where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next
3. Only autotrophs are capable of photosynthesis
4. Both autotrophs & heterotrophs perform cellular respiration to release energy to do work
5. In photosynthesis, CO2(carbon dioxide) and H2O (water) are combined to form C6H12O6 (glucose) & O2 (oxygen)
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6
6. In cellular respiration, O2 (oxygen) is used to burn C6H12O6 (glucose) & release CO2(carbon dioxide), H2O (water), and energy
7. Usable energy released in cellular respiration is called adenosine triphosphate or ATP
IV. Light Absorption in Chloroplasts

1. Chloroplasts in plant & algal cells absorb light energy from the sun during the light dependent reactions
2. Photosynthetic cells may have thousands of chloroplasts
3. Chloroplasts are double membrane organelles with the an inner membrane folded into disc-shaped sacs called thylakoids
4. Thylakoids, containing chlorophyll and other accessory pigments, are in stacks called granum (grana, plural)
5. Grana are connected to each other & surrounded by a gel-like material called stroma
6. Light-capturing pigments in the grana are organized into photosystems
V. Pigments

1. Light travels as waves & packets called photons
2. Wavelength of light is the distance between 2 consecutive peaks or troughs
3. Sunlight or white light is made of different wavelengths or colors carrying different amounts of energy
4. A prism separates white light into 7 colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, & violet) ROY G. BIV
5. These colors are called the visible spectrum
6. When light strikes an object, it is absorbed, transmitted, or reflected
7. When all colors are absorbed, the object appears black
8. When all colors are reflected, the object appears white
9. If only one color is reflected (green), the object appears that color (e.g. Chlorophyll)

VI. Pigments in the Chloroplasts
1.Thylakoids contain a variety of pigments ( green red, orange, yellow...)
2.Chlorophyll (C55H70MgN4O6) is the most common pigment in plants & algae
3.Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b are the 2 most common types of chlorophyll in autotrophs
4.Chlorophyll absorbs only red, blue, & violet light
5.Chlorophyll b absorbs colors or light energy NOT absorbed by chlorophyll a
6.The light energy absorbed by chlorophyll b is transferred to chlorophyll a in the light reactions
7.Carotenoids are accessory pigments in the thylakoids & include yellow, orange, & red
VII. Overview of Photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

1. Photosynthesis is not a simple one step reaction but a biochemical pathway involving many steps
2. This complex reaction can be broken down into two reaction systems --- light dependent & light independent or dark reactions

* Light Reaction: H2O O2 + ATP + NADPH2
o Water is split, giving off oxygen.
o This system depends on sunlight for activation energy.
o Light is absorbed by chlorophyll a which "excites" the electrons in the chlorophyll molecule.
o Electrons are passed through a series of carriers and adenosine triphosphate or ATP (energy) is produced.
o Takes place in the thylakoids.
* Dark Reaction: ATP + NADPH2 + CO2 C6H12O6
o Carbon dioxide is split, providing carbon to make sugars.
o The ultimate product is glucose.
o While this system depends on the products from the light reactions, it does not directly require light energy.
o Includes the Calvin Cycle.
o Takes place in the stroma.

VIII. Calvin Cycle

1. Carbon atoms from CO2 are bonded or "fixed" into organic compounds during a process called carbon fixation
2. The energy stored in ATP and NADPH during the Light Reactions is used in the Calvin cycle
3. The Calvin cycle has 3 main steps occurring within the stroma of the Chloroplast

STEP 1

* CO2 diffuses into the stroma from surrounding cytosol
* An enzyme combines a CO2 molecule with a five-carbon carbohydrate called RuBP
* The six-carbon molecule produced then splits immediately into a pair of three-carbon molecules known as PGA

STEP 2

* Each PGA molecule receives a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP
* This compound then receives a proton from NADPH and releases a phosphate group producing PGAL
* These reactions produce ADP, NADP+, and phosphate which are used again in the Light Reactions.

STEP 3

* Most PGAL is converted back to RuBP to keep the Calvin cycle going
* Some PGAL leaves the Calvin Cycle and is used to make other organic compounds including amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates
* PGAL serves as the starting material for the synthesis of glucose and fructose
* Glucose and fructose make the disaccharide sucrose, which travels in solution to other parts of the plant (e.g., fruit, roots)

4.Each turn of the Calvin cycle fixes One CO2 molecule so it takes six turns to make one molecule of glucose

IX. Photosystems & Electron Transport Chain

1. Only 1 in 250 chlorophyll molecules (chlorophyll a) actually converts light energy into usable energy
2. These molecules are called reaction-center chlorophyll
3. The other molecules (chlorophyll b, c, & d and carotenoids) absorb light energy and deliver it to the reaction-center molecule
4. These chlorophyll molecules are known as antenna pigments
5. A unit of several hundred antenna pigment molecules plus a reaction center is called a photosynthetic unit or photosystem
6. There are 2 types of photosystems --- Photosystem I & Photosystem II
7. Light is absorbed by the antenna pigments of photosystems II and I
8. The absorbed energy is transferred to the reaction center pigment, P680 in photosystem II, P700 in photosystem I
9. P680 in Photosystem II loses an electron and becomes positively charged so it can now split water & release electrons (2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + O2)
10. Electrons from water are transferred to the cytochrome complex of Photosystem I
11. These excited electrons activate P700 in photosystem I which helps reduce NADP+ to NADPH
12. NADPH is used in the Calvin cycle
13. Electrons from Photosystem II replace the electrons that leave chlorophyll molecules in Photosystem I
X. Chemiosmosis (KEM-ee-ahz-MOH-suhs)

1. Synthesis or making of ATP (energy)
2. Depends on the concentration gradient of protons ( H+) across the thylakoid membrane
3. Protons (H+) are produced from the splitting of water in Photosystem II
4. Concentration of Protons is HIGHER in the thylakoid than in the stroma
5. Enzyme, ATP synthetase in the thylakoid membrane, makes ATP by adding a phosphate group to ADP
I. Alternate Pathways

1. The Calvin cycle is the most common pathway used by autotrophs called C3 Plants
2. Plants in hot, dry climates use alternate pathways to fix carbon & then transfer it to the Calvin cycle
3. Stomata are small openings on the underside of leaves for gas exchange (O2 & CO2)
4. Guard cells on each side of the stoma help open & close the stomata
5. Plants also lose H2O through stoma so they are closed during the hottest part of the day
6.

C4 plants fix CO2 into 4-Carbon Compounds during the hottest part of the day when their stomata are partially closed
7. C4 plants include corn, sugar cane and crabgrass
8. CAM plants include cactus & pineapples
9. CAM plants open their stomata at night and close during the day so CO2 is fixed at night
10.During the day, the CO2 is released from these compounds and enters the Calvin Cycle

XII. Factors Determining the Rate of Photosynthesis

1. Light intensity - As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis initially increases and then levels off to a plateau
2. Temperature - Only the dark, not the light reactions are temperature dependent because of the enzymes they use (25 oC to 37oC)
3. Length of day
4. Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide available improves the photosynthesis rate
5. Level of air pollution

Curry Tree

It is a small tree, growing 4-6 m tall, with a trunk up to 40 cm diameter. The leaves are pinnate, with 11-21 leaflets, each leaflet 2-4 cm long and 1-2 cm broad. They are highly aromatic. The flowers are small white, and fragrant. The small black, shiny berries are edible, but their seeds are poisonous.

The species name commemorates the botanist Johann König.

Since English name serves as " curry leaves " , one Japanese translate this herb as " Kareye -no-ki " means " the tree of curry". The original meanings and figure was misunderstood completely.
The original name of this herb is " Kaariveppirai " in Tamil language witch meands " leaves for cooking curry " , then it turns the name as " karapiincha " in Sinhalese language..

It is rather difficult for bringing it up in the house darden in Sri Lanka because young karapincha trees do not like strong sun shine.
　A Japanese writer once wrote it that an English name --;curry leaves" There is the smell of curry powder " but it is not right.
There is a scent of fragrant beans in karapincha leaves.
This scent tempts appetite.
Several leaves are used for cooking. Some Cookary books onsist that laurel can be a substitute for karapincha ,but scent is completely different.
The small and narrow leaves somewhat resemble the leaves of the Neem tree; therefore they are also referred to as Karivepaku in Telugu (aaku means leaf), Karuveppilai (translated to Black Neem leaf) in Tamil and Malayalam, Karu/Kari meaning black, ilai meaning leaves and veppilai meaning Neem leaf. In the Kannada language it is known as Kari BEvu and Karivepaku in Telugu, again translating to the same meaning Black Neem leaf. But the most plausible reason why it is called Kariveppilla in Malayalam is that it uses in curry, which in malayalm is more correctly pronounced as Kari.

Other names include Kari Patta (Hindi), Karivepaku Karuveppilai, noroxingha (Assamese), Bhursunga Patra (Oriya), Kadhi Patta (Marathi), Mithho Limdo (Gujarati) and Karapincha (Sinhalese).

Uses

The leaves are highly valued as seasoning in South Indian and Sri Lankan cooking, much like bay leaves and especially in curries with fish or coconut milk[citation needed]. They are also used as an ingredient in the popular Pakistani dish karhi. In their fresh form, they have a short shelf life though they may be stored in a freezer for quite some time; however, this can result in a loss of their flavour[original research?]. They are also available dried, though the aroma is much inferior.

The leaves of Murraya koenigii are also used as a herb in Ayurvedic medicine. Their properties include much value as an antidiabetic,[2] antioxidant,[3] antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-hypercholesterolemic etc. Curry leaves are also known to be good for hair, for keeping them healthy and long.

The coffee tree

coffee tree
coffee, a tree, its seeds, and the beverage made from them. The coffee tree, a small evergreen of the genus Coffea, has smooth, ovate leaves and clusters of fragrant white flowers that mature into deep red fruits about 1-2 in. (1.27 cm) long. The fruit usually contains two seeds, the coffee beans. C. arabica yields the highest-quality beans and provides the bulk of the world's coffee, including c.80% of the coffee imported into the United States. The species is thought to be native to Ethiopia, where it was known before A.D. 1000.

Coffee's earliest human use may have been as a food; a ball of the crushed fruit molded with fat was a day's ration for certain African nomads. Later, wine was made from the fermented husks and pulps. Coffee was known in 15th-century Arabia; from there it spread to Egypt and Turkey, overcoming religious and political opposition to become popular among Arabs. At first proscribed by Italian churchmen as a heathen's drink, it was approved by Pope Clement VIII, and by the mid-17th cent. coffee had reached most of Europe. Introduced in North America c.1668, coffee became a favorite American beverage after the Boston Tea Party made tea unfashionable.

Coffee owes its popularity in part to the stimulative effect of its caffeine caffeine, odorless, slightly bitter alkaloid found in coffee , tea , kola nuts (see cola ), ilex plants (the source of the
constituent. Caffeine, a bitter alkaloid, can also contribute to irritability, depression, diarrhea, insomnia, and other disorders. Decaffeinated coffees, developed in the early 1900s, account for c.18% of the U.S. market. For those without the time or the inclination to brew their own, there are instant or soluble coffees, introduced in 1867, which account for c.17% of U.S. coffee sales.
Coffee Plant Cultivation
The coffee plant prefers the cool, moist, frost-free climate found at higher altitudes in the tropics and subtropics. Optimum growing conditions include: temperature of about 75°F; (24°C;); well-distributed annual rainfall of about 50 in. (127 cm) with a short dry season; and fertile, deep, well-drained soil, especially of volcanic origin. While coffee can be grown from sea level to c.6,000 ft (1,830 m), and C. robusta is produced at low elevations in West Africa, the better arabica grades are generally produced above 1,500 ft (460 m). Strong winds limit coffee production; coffee is often grown in the shelter of taller trees. A coffee tree yields its maximum sometime between its fifth and tenth year and may bear for about 30 years.
The flowers of the coffee tree
The flowers are white with 5 or 6 petals. The pistil that emerges from the cupule is tipped with delicate stigmas. The shape and scent resemble those of jasmine, and it is for this reason that the coffee tree was called "Arabian Jasmine" in the 17th century.

The flowers form glomerules, or little tufts made up of 8 to 15 elements, at the base of the leaves. They produce the same number of berries, commonly known as cherries because of their colour. The flowers last only a few hours and wilt as soon as fertilisation has taken place: however, others quickly replace them. As a result, it is not uncommon to find leaves, flowers and berries on the tree at the same time! One tree can produce over 30,000 flowers in a year.

The leaves of the coffee tree
The coffee tree is an evergreen with spear-shaped leaves, which are green and shiny on the upper side. As with all Rubiaceous plants, the leaves grow in pairs on either side of the stem and they are stipulated - that is to say, the two foliaceous organs are to be found at the base of the leaf stalk. The leaves of the Robusta trees are much larger than those of the Arabica.
The cherry
The cherry of the coffee treeThe cherry is the name usually given to the fruit of the coffee tree. Botanists prefer to call it the "drupe". Green to begin with, the berries ripen over several months, becoming successively yellow, then red, garnet red, and finally almost black.

The ideal time for harvesting is when the berries are red. Inside the drupe, protected by the "mesocarp" or pulp, lie two small beans separated by a groove. These must be extracted and roasted before they can be used for consumption. Coffee is a member of the Rubiaceous family (Gardenias, Quinquina, Garence), it has a lot in common with Jasmine. The plant was first classified in 1753 and there are now about 60 different species, each having different varieties. However, there are two main types: Arabica and Robusta.

Coffee grows on varied soils - volcanic, siliceous clay, alluvial and peat and sand. Like the vine, soil gives a particular character to the same botanical species and different "Vintages" arise. Soil must be deep (roots are 1 to 2 metres) and acid (pH 4.5 to 6).
Important growing factors are:

* Avoiding excessive cold and heat.
* 1200-1500mm of rain per annum.
* A few hours of light per day.
* No strong winds.
* Altitude - The higher the better.

Coffee grows between 28 degrees North and 30 degrees South; so growing areas include Central America, Caribbean, Brazil, West Africa, East Africa and Yemen, Madagascar, India, Indonesia and Vietnam.

Coriander

Coriander
Little is known about the origins of the coriander plant, although it is generally thought to be native to the Mediterranean and parts of southwestern Europe. Experts believe its use dates back to at least 5,000 BC. References to coriander can be found in Sanskrit writings, and the seeds were placed in Egyptian tombs. In Plants of Love, Christian Reach states that ancient Egyptians and Greeks believed coriander had aphrodisiacal properties. Dioscorides, a Greek physician and author of several renowned books on the medicinal qualities of herbs, believed ingesting coriander spice could heighten a man's sexual potency.
On a different note, coriander even rates a mention in the Old Testament. In Exodus, chapter 16, verse 31, it says that: "And the house of Israel called the name there of Manna: and it was like coriander seed, white; and the taste of it was like wafers made with honey."
Cilantro has been used in Chinese cooking for hundreds of years. Like other ancient cultures, the Chinese valued cilantro for its medicinal and reputed aphrodisiacal qualities, as well as its distinctive flavor. In "Asian Ingredients", Ken Hom notes that cilantro is one of the few food herbs used in Chinese cooking.
More recently, coriander plants were flourishing in Massachussetts by the early 1600's, one of the first herbs grown by the American colonists. And seventeenth century Frenchmen used distilled coriander to make a type of liquor. Today, cilantro is cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries throughout the world.
Cilantro is a herb used worldwide. While often referred to as Chinese parsley in Asian cookbooks (Mexican parsley is another common nickname), cilantro has a stronger, more distinct flavor than parsley.
Cilantro features prominently in Chinese cooking. Cilantro leaves and stems are frequently used to garnish Chinese salads, or chopped up and mixed in dressings and sauces. Cilantro is used in other South-east Asian cuisines as well. For example, cilantro roots make a pungent addition to Thai curries.
Although cilantro comes from the coriander plant, the spice doesn't play a large role in Chinese cuisine. In Chinese cookbooks you may find coriander described as a plant somewhat similar to parsley, with no mention made of the spice at all. And it is common to find recipes calling for fresh coriander, meaning cilantro leaves. While it would be inaccurate to say Chinese cooks never use coriander, it plays a greater role in Indian and Indonesian cuisines. In addition, coriander seeds impart a lemony flavor to many Thai dishes.

When purchasing cilantro (also called Chinese parsley), check for leaves that have a bright green color with no yellow spots, and no evidence of wilting. Fresh cilantro doesn't last long, and you'll need to store it in the refrigerator. One method is to put the cilantro in an air-filled, securely closed plastic bag in the vegetable crisper section of your refrigerator. However, I prefer another recommended method; placing the cilantro in a cup of water (stems down like you would with flowers), covering the cup with a plastic bag, and returning it to the refrigerator. If you change the water every two days the cilantro should last up to two weeks. Be sure to wash it thoroughly before using.
If you are using coriander seeds, check to see if they need to be washed before storage. The seeds can be dried in the sun or in the oven on a low temperature. Another tip is to dry roast the seeds before grinding them, as this helps bring out their unique fragrance.
Gardening buffs might want to consider growing their own coriander plants. A hardy annual that thrives in loamy soil in direct sunlight, coriander should be planted at the same time that you would plant parsley in your particular area.
Little is known about the origins of the coriander plant, although it is generally thought to be native to the Mediterranean and parts of southwestern Europe. Experts believe its use dates back to at least 5,000 BC. References to coriander can be found in Sanskrit writings, and the seeds were placed in Egyptian tombs. In Plants of Love, Christian Reach states that ancient Egyptians and Greeks believed coriander had aphrodisiacal properties. Dioscorides, a Greek physician and author of several renowned books on the medicinal qualities of herbs, believed ingesting coriander spice could heighten a man's sexual potency.
On a different note, coriander even rates a mention in the Old Testament. In Exodus, chapter 16, verse 31, it says that: "And the house of Israel called the name there of Manna: and it was like coriander seed, white; and the taste of it was like wafers made with honey."
Cilantro has been used in Chinese cooking for hundreds of years. Like other ancient cultures, the Chinese valued cilantro for its medicinal and reputed aphrodisiacal qualities, as well as its distinctive flavor. In "Asian Ingredients", Ken Hom notes that cilantro is one of the few food herbs used in Chinese cooking.

More recently, coriander plants were flourishing in Massachussetts by the early 1600's, one of the first herbs grown by the American colonists. And seventeenth century Frenchmen used distilled coriander to make a type of liquor. Today, cilantro is cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries throughout the world.
Cilantro is a herb used worldwide. While often referred to as Chinese parsley in Asian cookbooks (Mexican parsley is another common nickname), cilantro has a stronger, more distinct flavor than parsley.
Cilantro features prominently in Chinese cooking. Cilantro leaves and stems are frequently used to garnish Chinese salads, or chopped up and mixed in dressings and sauces. Cilantro is used in other South-east Asian cuisines as well. For example, cilantro roots make a pungent addition to Thai curries.
Although cilantro comes from the coriander plant, the spice doesn't play a large role in Chinese cuisine. In Chinese cookbooks you may find coriander described as a plant somewhat similar to parsley, with no mention made of the spice at all. And it is common to find recipes calling for fresh coriander, meaning cilantro leaves. While it would be inaccurate to say Chinese cooks never use coriander, it plays a greater role in Indian and Indonesian cuisines. In addition, coriander seeds impart a lemony flavor to many Thai dishes.
When purchasing cilantro (also called Chinese parsley), check for leaves that have a bright green color with no yellow spots, and no evidence of wilting. Fresh cilantro doesn't last long, and you'll need to store it in the refrigerator. One method is to put the cilantro in an air-filled, securely closed plastic bag in the vegetable crisper section of your refrigerator. However, I prefer another recommended method; placing the cilantro in a cup of water (stems down like you would with flowers), covering the cup with a plastic bag, and returning it to the refrigerator. If you change the water every two days the cilantro should last up to two weeks. Be sure to wash it thoroughly before using.
If you are using coriander seeds, check to see if they need to be washed before storage. The seeds can be dried in the sun or in the oven on a low temperature. Another tip is to dry roast the seeds before grinding them, as this helps bring out their unique fragrance.
Gardening buffs might want to consider growing their own coriander plants. A hardy annual that thrives in loamy soil in direct sunlight, coriander should be planted at the same time that you would plant parsley in your particular area.

Teak

TEAK
The Teak Tree, or Tectona, is one of the tropical hardwood birches, included in the family Verbenaceae. This tree is originally from the plantations of South East Asia, and can grow to a height of 30 - 40 m. As part of its life cycle, this tree sheds its leaves every year at dry season. Its longevity is very great, the Teak tree often living to an age of 100 years. Teak is especially noted for its capacity to withstand changes in the weather and season. One of the reasons for this is the ability of the Teak to bend, but not break, in the face of high winds.
Also, the Teak tree resin typically has an oil in its Galih (Cambium/heartwood) that is highly water resistant. This content alone can protect the Teak from decay, insects, and bacteria. At the same time, the combination of unique Teak tree content and thick fibers make it easier to cut and then later sculpt into pleasing forms. Because of this special characteristic, not found in other trees, there has always been interest in using Teak wood for various types of furniture. The teak trees found in South-East Asia forests reach a height of up to 150 feet, have reddish-green leaves with rough skin, and heartwood that is brown to dark gold in color. Of the main teak producers in the area, Indonesia, India, Myanmar, Philippine, and Malaysia, Indonesia's teak is considered of the highest quality in the world.
Cultivation and conservation of the Teak tree in Indonesia is managed by the government of Indonesia, Perum Perhutani (Forestation Company of Government). The largest producer of teak in Indonesia is Java. Its geography and weather are highly suitable to Teak tree plantations; Java Island is also a manufacturing center where many furniture workers are employed to process the wood of the Teak tree into unique and beautiful furniture. To get teak wood of the highest quality, there are some things that must be carefully attended to in the retrieval process. The older Teak trees, of up to 40 years in age, are the best ones to be cut. In fact, the older the Teak tree, the better will be the quality of its wood. Before cutting the Teak tree, the water content must be drained from the tree by making a cut at its under side. This draining process takes time, 1 to 2 years, in order to get the Teak tree dry enough that it can be cut into Teak wood, and so ready for its main use as the material for furniture and other products.
In India, Teak wood, because of its durability, is used - in addition to its use in furniture and other products - in the production of door and window frames. In Denmark, noted the world over for the stylishness and practicality of its furniture products - with teak, once again, as the main material - because of the increasing demand, and decreasing supply, the price of their furniture products has greatly increased - while in Indonesia, Teak wood is exported abroad and also used as the main material for furniture.
Teak Aesthetics
The most salient characteristic of Teak is its resistance to all kinds of weather. Because of this, it is also resistant to decay and easily repels insects. This is one of the reasons that, unlike other woods, it is often used as the main material for both indoor and outdoor furniture. Teak wood holds its form over many years, even if left outside, and because of this it has often been used for the decking of ships - with its special aroma, cruise ships in particular.
Other characteristics of teak are its elasticity and solid fiber, both of which facilitate woodworking and the ability of woodworkers to create products, such as our own at GiantChess.com, that are both beautiful and durable.
Another reason for the beauty of teak wood products is the special oil content in its heartwood, which makes this wood always seen to gleam - maintaining this glow even if it is left outside for a long period of time. Additionally, Teak wood with its antibacterial characteristics will not become brittle. The owner of teakwood furniture, therefore, will not even find it necessarily to add a preservative to keep it looking like new. Even so, it can occasionally benefit from some polishing, or the application of some varnish, to enhance its natural beauty.

Teak Wood In The World
Through much of recorded history Teak wood has been relied upon and trusted for its uncommon strength. This wood is highly prized by lovers and collectors of furniture the world over. Because of it's rareness and the limited supply of teak in the world, teak is increasingly being sought after and its price increasing. The reputation of Teak throughout the whole world in producing furniture of the highest quality has, however, never faltered.
Indonesia, as the biggest teak supplier in the world, is very committed to preserving the Teak tree through both practical and visionary government programs. It is only through Perum Perhutani (Forestation Company of Government) that Indonesia can supply Teak wood for export. Not only this, but because of the skill of our woodworkers and artisans, Indonesia produces some of the most unique and interesting furniture products to be found anywhere in the world.
Furniture hunters the world over immediately recognize the characteristics of teak, and always stop to look at Indonesian teak products, so reflective of our history and culture. The demand for this Teak wood has increased so much that the Indonesian government has been forced to implement a plantation program entailing the cultivation, use, and protection of our Teak trees.
This is because the teak is a perennial plant, and of great importance to the economy of Indonesia. Construction material and furniture that comes from Indonesian teak wood each have their own increasing market, as well as increasing value. Generally, Teak trees are harvested only after they have reached ten years; although new technology has yielded certain Teak types called 'Jati Genjah' (Fast Growing) that are also of excellent quality.This will help Indonesia to continue to be the preeminent supplier of teak in the world.

Cocoa

Cultivation
Cocoa ( Theobroma cacao L. ) is a native of Amazon region of South America. The bulk of it is produced in the tropical areas of the African continent. There are over 20 species in the genus but the cocoa tree Theobroma cacao is the only one cultivated widely.

Cocoa being a tropical crop, India offers considerable scope for the development. Cocoa is mainly grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Importance:
Though cocoa has been known as the beverage crop even before tea or coffee, it is relatively a new crop in India. Cocoa being primarily an item of confectionery industries is the produce of Cacao plant mostly grown as a companion crop interspersed within the irrigated Coconut and /or Arecanut gardens. Even though Cocoa comes under the definition of plantation crops pure plantation of cocoa as such is absent in India. The commercial cultivation of cocoa however commenced from 1960’s only. Various Cocoa products are confectionery in nature and consumable with palatable ness. Internationally it is an item largely consumed in developed countries. India has gained a foreign exchange of nearly Rs. 9.00 crores in 1995-96 and Rs. 6.00 crores in 1996-97 by way of export of cocoa beans and its products from India. At present the global production and consumption of cocoa is around 27.00 lakh MT, compared to this, India’s production is meager i.e. 10,000 MT.

Climate:
Rainfall

Average rainfall of 1250-3000 mm. per annum and preferably between 1500-2000mm. with a dry season of not more than 3 months with less than 100mm. rain per month is ideal, but the quantity is less important than distribution. Rainfall can be supplemented with irrigation during dry months.

Temperature

Temperature varying between 30-320C mean maximum and 18-210C mean minimum but around 250C is considered to be a favourable. It can’t be grown commercially in areas where the minimum temperature fall below 100C and annual average temperature is less than 210C.

Humidity

This is uniformly high in cocoa-growing areas, often 100% at night, falling to 70-80 % by day, sometimes low during the dry season. The most marked effect was on leaf area, plants growing at low humidity ( 50-60%) having larger leaves and greater leaf area than plants growing at medium (70-80%) and high (90-95%) humidity under the latter conditions leaves are small and tend to be curled and withered at the tip. The other effects of humidity concern the spread of fungal diseases and the difficulties of drying and storage.

Soil
Cocoa is grown on a wide range of soil types and the standards for soil suitable for cocoa vary considerably. Cocoa trees are more sensitive to moisture stress than other tropical crops. In addition cocoa trees are sensitive to water logging. While they can withstand flooding, they will not tolerate stagnant, water logged conditions. The depth of the soil should be at least 1.5m. The best soil for cocoa is forest soil rich in humus. The soil should be such as allowing easy penetration of roots capable of retaining moisture during summer and allowing circulation of air and moisture. Clay loams and sandy loams are suitable. Shallow soils should be avoided. A minimum requirement of 3.5% organic matter say 2% Carbon in the top 15cm. is ideal for growing cocoa plantation. Cocoa is grown on soils with a wide range of PH from 6-7.5 where major nutrients and trace elements will be available. Cocoa doest not come up in coastal sandy soils where coconut flourish.
Propagation:

Vegetative propagation: Large scale production of superior planting material is possible in cocoa through vegetative means like budding and grafting of which budding is the easiest. The different budding methods feasible are ‘T’ , inverted ‘T’, patch and modified Forkert. The new method of micro budding also may be followed.

Selection of root stocks and bud wood: Seedlings of about 60-90 days are generally used as root stock. While selecting root stock, care should be taken to see that both root stock and scion are of same thickness and physiological age. Bud wood from chupons can be taken for budding. The patch to be taken should be above 2.5 cm. long and 0.5cm. wide with a single vigorous bud on it. Bark of the same size is removed from the root stock and the bud patch is inserted. It is then tied with grafting tape. The patch selected should have bud that is visible to the naked eye but it should not have signs of proliferation. Even though bud wood freshly collected can be used for budding, pre-curing of bud wood is found to increase the percentage of success. Such a pre-curing consists of removing the lamina portions of all the leaves from the region of bud stick chosen. The petiole stump will fall off in about 10 days and the buds would have been initiated to grow. Buds may now be extracted from the pre-cured portion. If the root stocks are less than four months old, the bud wood selected should also be green or greenish brown.

Organic Tea

Organic Tea

Organic produce is everywhere. We can buy organic vegetables, fruits, and even “organically raised” meat. Organic beverages such as tea and coffee are also available and they are very popular. But how can you be sure the organic tea you buy is really organic?

What is Organic Tea?
Organic varieties are grown without the use of chemical pesticides or fertilizers. The soil is enriched with natural compost and a layer of mulch retains the moisture while providing extra nutrients as it breaks down.
This growing method is more labor-intensive but produces superior quality tea. Tea competitions in China, Japan, and Taiwan have consistently chosen organic teas as the best teas of their class. These competitions are held “blind” so that the judges can only use taste, aroma and color as the judging criteria.
In addition to the improved flavor, the organic varieties are also higher in health promoting polyphenols and catechins. These are the antioxidants that provide many of the health benefits that tea is famous for. Scientific studies have shown that these compounds are found in higher concentrations in good quality tea.
Organic tea is also better for the tea farmer. Tea plants can live more than 100 years, and organic farming methods allow the tea plants to remain healthy for the duration of their lifespan.
Organic Black Tea
Organic black tea has the same dark-red brilliant color, savory aroma, and pleasant taste as other varieties of black tea.
What distinguishes organic varieties from regular black tea options is that it is free of pesticides and grown in an environmentally natural zone.
The growing, harvesting and processing, which occur on ecological tea plantations in Asia, follow the same methods of agriculture as other organically produced products.
That means the camelilia sinensis plant from which tea is made is free of any man-made chemicals, including synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, plant growth regulators, chemical food additives, etc.
Organic agriculture is a method of growing and processing that helps protect, rather than deplete, natural resources.

Organic foods are grown on land that has been free from the use of synthetic fertilizers, growth regulators, insecticides or herbicides for at least three years.
Instead of harmful chemicals, farmers use methods like composting, crop rotation, and inter-planting to control weeds and pests, replenish the soil and sustain the health of our planet.
A universal beverage, black tea is the most popular blend available today. It undergoes extensive oxidation that gives it its dark color and full-bodied flavor. When consumed on a regular basis, the health benefits of all black teas – whether organically grown or not – are said to include the following:
· Decreases risk of cardiovascular events
· Possible prevention of some cancers
· Possible reduction of heart attack and stroke
· Less than half amount of caffeine of coffee
In addition to black tea, there are a wide variety of other organic teas grown under the conditions described above.s means that the farmer has less expense in replacing tea plants.

Kombucha Tea
Organic Kombucha tea, also referred to as Mancurian Tea or Kargasok tea, is made with a live “starter culture” that is added to a mixture of black tea and sugar. It is then allowed to ferment for a week or more before it is ready to drink.

The tea is a sweet-tasting beverage that is known for a variety of health benefits that include helping to boost the body’s immune system, promoting healthy digestion, building stamina, and fighting a number of infections.
Though, the Food and Drug Administration has not approved organicKombucha tea for medicinal purposes, it has been recognized around the world for its health benefits for centuries.
Organic Kombucha Tea Recipe
· A suitable brewing container, about 5 litre or 1 gallon capacity
· A piece of muslin, kitchen towel or some other piece of clean porous material. A size that will cover the top of the brewing container with some overlap.
· A large elastic band to hold the material on the container.
· A thermometer (optional)
· 4 litres (plus a glass) of water (boiled and cooled or filtered)
· Tea (6 teaspoons loose or 6 tea bags), organic black, green or a mixture of both.
· 320g refined white sugar (ordinary household sugar).
· A healthy Kombucha culture that can be purchased from an online supplier
· 400ml of ready brewed organic Kombucha tea or 60ml (4 tablespoons) distilled vinegar (white, apple, cider or white wine vinegar). If you are using vinegar, it must be distilled -- not live, brewed or fermented.
· Suitable bottles (4 litres worth)
· A kitchen measuring jug